The Factors of Gangsterism free essay sample

These days, there are part of cases that include understudies in gangsterism. As indicated by Curry and Spergel (1990), gangsterism is characterized as a group or all in all of individual with a typical personality who participate in coterie or at some point overall gathering on a genuinely customary premise and whose exercises the general public may see in shifting degrees as legitimate, unlawful, unethical, or some mix. The issue of gangsterism among understudies of completely private schools cautious investigations before compelling activity can be aken to defeat it. There are a couple of components why understudies include in gangsterims in school that are mind controlling, tormenting, and beating one another. The fundamental elements of gangsterism are beating and bet. Because of boss Deputy of Comm. Datuk Mohd Mokhtar Mohd Sharif, said four young men who are comprehend to sit for their SPM test this year were set to be locked up over abducting and beating of Lim Bing Li,17. He said that understudies ought not stirred up with in packs and they would not represent posse connected wrongdoing and utilize every current law to get those stirred up in movement. We will compose a custom exposition test on The Factors of Gangsterism or then again any comparable theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page A portion of the school understudies likes to gigantic in bet until they can't pay for it. Because of high schooler betting, there more teenagers with obligations that they can't seek after reimbursement, and a connect to taking and lying. Betting is a dependence, and speculators may invest more energy in that movement, and less on homeworks and building associations with loved ones. Then again, betting is identified with different practices and factors, for example, poor scholarly execution, state in which in any event of betting are legitimate.

Sociology Research Paper Essays - Sociology, Conformity,

Human science Research Paper Human science is the logical investigation of human social action. In the push to consider human social action sociologists brake it down into objects of examination. The three objects of examination are populace, social structure, and the person. Each can be separated yet each is additionally indispensably identified with the other two. As an object of examination sociologists characterizes populace as a total of individuals in a geological region that has size and life span. The size has a lower breaking point of two and no upper most extreme. Life span changes and has a lower cutoff of zero with no known maximum breaking point. Populaces are by definition comprised of people. The investigation of human populace is named demography. Demography contemplates the size and creation of a populace, just as movement and area of the populace. Demographers track birth rates and demise rates and screen the populace development and attempt to clarify them as far as the social framework's turn of events. A genuine model is the Malthusian hypothesis where populace increments geometrically and the assets increment mathematically bringing about an absence of assets bringing about starvation and war. Luckily the hypothesis is imperfect in that it doesn't consider social factors, for example, fake contraception and the weight of en ormous families in a post mechanical society. The manner in which a populace cooperates with nature makes a social framework. The social framework draws on the populace and influences the populace. A case of this is in India where the proportion of men to ladies is (108 guys to each 100 female) while the sex proportion of most different countries is underneath 100. The reason for this difference is that guardians esteem children more than little girls and here and there prematurely end a female hatchling, or after birth give the girl less consideration which can bring about unexpected passing. A social framework is characterized as at least two jobs integrated by connections of reliance. A job is a designed tedious arrangement of practices. A case of a job is an occupation. There are different classes of social frameworks like proper associations that have objectives at the top of the priority list and endeavor to accomplish them (ex: countries) or like casual associations that are less objective arranged as in a network or a family. Human people group give social frameworks that serve the capacity of giving the day by day necessities of life to a populace. Social frameworks have four fundamental sorts of jobs; creation of products and enterprises, dissemination of the merchandise and ventures, enlistment and preparing of new individuals, and control capacities. Populace influences the jobs of the social framework. A case of this would be in the event that the birth rate expanded, at that point there would be a more prominent need to prepare these new individuals and the e nrollment and preparing job would be influenced. The preparation of a person to get one of the gathering is named socialization and is completed by chapel, family, and school, among different sources. People at that point are Homo Sapiens that differ in sex, age, and lifecycle. People can spread out roads to accomplish an objective and afterward through manners of thinking settle on a decision on which road to follow. People are separated from creatures in that all creatures can sign (responding to something) however no one but people can image (the capacity to put significance into something). To be human you should have the option to image and to image you should have in any event two individuals, which prompts a social framework. The outcome is that so as to be human you should be in a social framework. Helen Keller was a case of somebody who was not a human until she had the option to image. Social frameworks influence people by the procedure of socialization. Socialization ingrains the standards of the framework into the person. The standards are on the whole the restricted and recommended types of conduct in the social framework. Standards fluctuate in significance from the folkway of wearing a bind to a proper evening gathering to the mores of grown-ups not taking part in sexual acts with youngsters. Socialization disguises these standards in the individual forming the subsequent character of the person. Absence of introduction to a social framework bring about somebody who isn't human as in the cases

6 Ty??? of Market Failure

6 Ty??? of Market Failure H?v? ??u ever gone t? th? ?t?r? t? bu? something ?nl? t? find it was all sold ?ut?H?w frustrating!Id??ll?, when a ??n?um?r demands a ?r?du?t, th? m?rk?t should supply it. Thi? is th? b??i?? ?f supply ?nd demand.In cases wh?re ??u d?m?nd a ?r?du?t and the market fails to ?u??l? it, the resultant problem is termed by economists as m?rk?t failure.Thus, m?rk?t f?ilur? occurs ?n?tim? there i? a mi??ll???ti?n ?f resources resulting from a dis??uilibrium in demand ?nd ?u??l?.For ?x?m?l?, let’s say a company decides to introduce a product to the market with the intention that it would be accepted by the general public, but due to existing gaps in market research before the manufacturing process, the product did not sell.This ultimately leads to disequilibrium in demand and supply as there are products for the market but no consumers to buy it.Thus, the market fails.WH?T IS MARKET FAILURE? M?rk?t f?ilur? i? the economic ?itu?ti?n defined b? ?n in?ffi?i?nt distribution ?f g??d? ?nd ??rvi??? in th? fr?? m?rk?t.Al?? one could ???, m?rk?t f?ilur? ???ur? when th? price m??h?ni?m f?il? t? ????unt f?r ?ll ?f the ???t? ?nd b?n?fit? n??????r? to ?r?vid? ?nd ??n?um? a g??d.Furth?rm?r?, the individu?l in??ntiv?? f?r rational b?h?vi?r do not lead to rational ?ut??m?? for the gr?u?.Put another w??, ???h individual m?k?? th? ??rr??t d??i?i?n f?r him/h?r??lf, but th??? ?r?v? to b? the wr?ng d??i?i?n? f?r the gr?u?. In tr?diti?n?l microeconomics, thi? is shown ?? a ?t??d? ?t?t? di???uilibrium in which the quantity supplied d??? n?t equal th? quantity d?m?nd?d.A m?rk?t f?ilur? occurs whenever the individu?l? in a gr?u? ?nd u? w?r?? ?ff than if they h?d n?t ??t?d in ??rf??tl? r?ti?n?l ??lf-int?r??t. Such a gr?u? ?ith?r in?ur? too m?n? ???t? or r???iv?? t?? f?w b?n?fit?. Ev?n though th? ??n???t seems simple, it can b? misleading ?nd ???? t? mi?id?ntif?.C?ntr?r? t? wh?t th? n?m? implies, m?rk?t failure d??? n?t d???rib? inh?r?nt im??rf??ti?n? in the market ???n?m? th?r? ??n b? m?rk?t fa ilures in government ??tivit?, t??.One noteworthy ?x?m?l? i? r?nt ???king b? ????i?l int?r??t gr?u??. Special int?r??t gr?u?? ??n gain a l?rg? b?n?fit b? l?bb?ing f?r small costs ?n everyone ?l??, ?u?h ?? through a t?riff. Wh?n each ?m?ll gr?u? im????? its ???t?, th? wh?l? gr?u? i? w?r?? ?ff th?n if n? l?bb?ing h?d taken ?l???.Additi?n?ll?, n?t ?v?r? bad ?ut??m? fr?m m?rk?t activity ??unt? ?? a m?rk?t failure. N?r does a m?rk?t f?ilur? im?l? th?t ?riv?t? m?rk?t ??t?r? ??nn?t ??lv? th? ?r?bl?m. On th? fli? ?id?, not ?ll m?rk?t f?ilur?? h?v? a potential ??luti?n, ?v?n with prudent regulation or ?xtr? public ?w?r?n???.Ex?m?l?? ?f m?rk?t f?ilur?Under free m?rk?t ??nditi?n?, ?ri??? ?r? d?t?rmin?d ?lm??t ?x?lu?iv?l? b? th? f?r??? ?f ?u??l? and d?m?nd. Any ?hift in ?n? ?f th??? r??ult? in a price ?h?ng? th?t ?ign?l? a ??rr????nding shift in th? ?th?r. Th?n, the ?ri??? return t? an equilibrium l?v?l.A m?rk?t f?ilur? r??ult? when prices ??nn?t achieve equilibrium b???u?? ?f m?rk?t di?t?rti?n ? (for ?x?m?l?, minimum w?g? r??uir?m?nt? ?r price limit? ?n ????ifi? goods and services) th?t restrict ???n?mi? ?ut?ut.In ?th?r w?rd?, g?v?rnm?nt regulations im?l?m?nt?d to ?r?m?t? ???i?l w?llb?ing inevitably r??ult in a degree ?f m?rk?t failure.C?n?id?r the f?ll?wingFirm: Bank Pr?du?t: Loans Cost ?f ?r?du?ti?n: Ri?k t? the b?nkPrice: Rate ?f returnN?w ??ming t? th? m?rk?t failure. Th? inv??tm?nt banks t??k ri?k? (?ub prime l?nding) t? maximise their ?wn ?r?fit? (as ?n? r?ti?n?l individu?l or firm would d?).But ?in?? the ???l? ?f th? banking sector w?? v?r? l?rg? l????? to these banks w?uld cost the wh?l? ???n?m?. Thus by t?king th??? ??l?ul?t?d risks they w?r? ri?king the whole ???n?m?.Sin?? th? ???t ?f ?r?du?ti?n t? th? b?nk? didnt in??r??r?t? th? social ???t (risk t? th? whole ???n?m? and ???i?t?) th? price ?f the ?r?du?t (Ex???t?d r?t? ?f r?turn) w?? lower th?n th? id??l value ?nd hence more ?f th? ?r?du?t w?? d?m?nd?d th?n the id??l value resulting int? a market f?ilur?.Simple r ?x?m?l?? of m?rk?t f?ilur?V???in?ti?n: Wh?n ?n individu?l takes a vaccine for a disease he n?t ?nl? r?du??? the ri?k ?f his ?wn infection but ?l?? reduces the ri?k ?f inf??ti?n? t? ?th?r? thu? hi? d??i?i?n t? buy th? v???in? n?t ?nl? b?n?fit? him but ?l?? th? ???i?t?.Since th? price th? individual i? r??d? t? ??? i? hi? m?rgin?l b?n?fit ?nd w?uld not in?lud? th? m?rgin?l b?n?fit t? th? ???i?t? th? ?u?ntit? d?m?nd?d ?f th? v???in? w?uld b? lower th?n th? id??l amount (Wh?r? ?ll costs w?uld be ??u?l t? all b?n?fit?). Thu? this i? a m?rk?t f?ilur?. To eliminate thi? m?rk?t f?ilur? the ???i?t? ?r th? g?v?rnm?nt h?? t? subsidize v???in? equal t? th? m?rgin?l b?n?fit t? the ???i?t?TYPES AND CAUSES OF M?RK?T FAILUREC?m?l?t? m?rk?t f?ilur?A ??m?l?t? m?rk?t f?ilur? ?xi?t? when fr?? m?rk?t? are unable to ?ll???t? ???r?? r???ur??? t? the ??ti?f??ti?n of a n??d ?r want.Thi? occurs b???u?? th?r? ?r? in?uffi?i?nt in??ntiv?? to ?n??ur?g? profit-seeking firm? to ?nt?r a m?rk?t.Thi? i? ??mm?nl? th ? ???? with ?ur? public goods, ?u?h ?? ?tr??t lighting, f?r whi?h there i? a n??d, but private individu?l? w?uld not b? ?r???r?d t? ???. If n?-?n? i? ?r???r?d to ???, n? r?v?nu? ??n b? d?riv?d, ?nd n? ?r?fit ??rn?d; hence n? firm w?uld ?nt?r th? market.P?rti?l m?rk?t failureThi? h????n? wh?n the m?rk?t d??? n?t ?u??l? ?r?du?t? in th? correct quantity ?r at th? ?ri?? consumers want t? ???.Again, if w? think about our ?ur?l? b??t? ?x?m?l?, a ??rti?l m?rk?t f?ilur? would occur if th?r? were n?t ?n?ugh ?ur?l? b??t? to m??t the d?m?nd of consumers, or th? price ?f th? purple b??t? w?r? ?? high th?t ??n?um?r? did not ?ur?h??? th?m.M?rk?t failure ???ur? due t? in?ffi?i?n?? in th? ?ll???ti?n ?f g??d? ?nd ??rvi???. A price m??h?ni?m f?il? t? account f?r ?ll ?f th? ???t? and benefits inv?lv?d wh?n providing ?r ??n?uming a specific good.When thi? h????n?, the m?rk?t will n?t produce th? ?u??l? ?f th? g??d that is socially ??tim?l â€" it will be ?v?r ?r und?r ?r?du??d.In ?rd?r t? full? understa nd m?rk?t failure, it is im??rt?nt for ??u t t? r???gniz? th? reasons why a m?rk?t can f?il. Du? t? th? ?tru?tur? ?f markets, it i? im????ibl? f?r th?m t? b? ??rf??t.A? a r??ult, m??t m?rk?t? are n?t ?u?????ful ?nd require f?rm? of intervention.S?m? ?f th??? ??u??? include;1. MonopolyYeah I kn?w, sounds fun wh?n ??u ?l??ing th? board g?m?, but n?, ?m n?t t?lking ?b?ut th? b??rd g?m?. In th? r??l w?rd, it can be a t??l f?r m?rk?t f?ilur? ?r m?rk?t ?ffi?i?n?? d???nding ?n th? party wilding the power.So wh?t i? M?n???l? in th? real world?It? a case ?f winn?r takes it all, but here there is no ?h?ll?ng?r. A monopoly r?f?r? to a sector or industry dominated b? ?n? ??r??r?ti?n, firm ?r ?ntit?.M?n???li?? ??n b? ??n?id?r?d an ?xtr?m? result of fr??-m?rk?t ???it?li?m in th?t ?b??nt ?n? restriction ?r restraints, a ?ingl? ??m??n? ?r gr?u? b???m?? l?rg? ?n?ugh t? ?wn ?ll ?r n??rl? all of the m?rk?t (g??d?, ?u??li??, ??mm?diti??, infr??tru?tur? and ????t?) for a ??rti?ul?r type ?f product or ?? rvi??.Antitru?t l?w? and r?gul?ti?n? ?r? ?ut in ?l??? t? discourage m?n???li?ti? operations â€" ?r?t??ting consumers, ?r?hibiting ?r??ti??? th?t r??tr?in tr?d? and ?n?uring a m?rk?t?l??? r?m?in? ???n and ??m??titiv?. Monopoly can ?l?? be used to m??n th? ?ntit? th?t h?? t?t?l ?r near-total ??ntr?l ?f a market.A monopoly i? a kind ?f ?tru?tur? that ?xi?t? when ?n? ??m??n? ?r supplier ?r?du??? ?nd ??ll? a product. If th?r? is a monopoly in a ?ingl? market with n? ?th?r substitutes, it becomes a “?ur? m?n???l?.”Wh?n th?r? ?r? multiple sellers in ?n indu?tr? and th?r? ?r? m?n? ?imil?r ?ub?titut?? for th? goods b?ing ?r?du??d, ?nd companies k??? ??m? ??w?r in th? market, then it i? called m?n???li?ti? ??m??titi?n.Ch?r??t?ri?ti?? of a M?n???l?High ?r no b?rri?r? to entry: Other competitors ?r? n?t ?bl? to enter th? marketSingl? seller: There i? ?nl? one seller in the m?rk?t. In thi? in?t?n??, the company b???m?? th? ??m? as th? indu?tr? it ??rv??.Price m?k?r: Th? Company th?t operates the monopoly d??id?? the price ?f the ?r?du?t th?t it will sell.Price di??rimin?ti?n: Th? firm ??n ?h?ng? th? ?ri?? ?r ?u?ntit? ?f th? product ?t ?n? tim?.Wh? ar? M?n???li?? Bad?A m?n???l? i? characterized b? th? ?b??n?? of ??m??titi?n, whi?h ??n l??d t? high costs f?r ??n?um?r?, inf?ri?r ?r?du?t? and ??rvi???, and ??rru?t behavior. A ??m??n? th?t dominates a business sector or industry ??n u?? that dominance t? its ?dv?nt?g?, ?nd ?t the ?x??n?? of others.It ??n create artificial ???r?iti??, fix ?ri??? ?nd ?th?rwi?? ?ir?umv?nt n?tur?l l?w? of ?u??l? ?nd demand. It ??n im??d? n?w entrants into th? field, discriminate ?nd inhibit ?x??rim?nt?ti?n ?r n?w product d?v?l??m?nt, whil? the ?ubli? â€" r?bb?d of th? recourse ?f u?ing a competitor â€" is ?t it? mercy.A monopolized m?rk?t ?ft?n b???m?? ?n unequal, and even in?ffi?i?nt, one.Mergers ?nd ???ui?iti?n? ?m?ng companies in the ??m? bu?in??? ?r? highl? r?gul?t?d ?nd r????r?h?d f?r thi? reason. Firms are t??i??ll? forced to div??t asset s if f?d?r?l authorities think a ?r?????d merger or t?k??v?r will violate ?nti-m?n???l? l?w?.P?li?i?? to Overcome M?rk?t Failure in MonopoliesLiberalization ?f Markets: D?r?gul?ting m?rk?t? ?n?bl?? n?w firm? t? ?nt?r and ??m??t? with the existing m?n???l?. F?r ?x?m?l?, thi? occurred in t?l???m?, g?? ?nd electricity. H?w?v?r, ??m? indu?tri?? are n?tur?l m?n???li?? and th?r?f?r? in th??? indu?tri?? it i? diffi?ult to ?n??ur?g? n?w firms. To ??m? extent, th? UK government overcame thi? thr?ugh increasing ?????? t? gas ?nd ?l??tri?it? infr??tru?tur?.M?rg?r P?li??: Thi? ?r?v?nt? ?n in?r???? in m?n???l? power wh?n tw? firm? joining t?g?th?r. It ??n b? u??ful in ?r?v?nting m?n???li?? but n?t dealing with ?xi?ting monopolies.R?gul?ti?n: ?.g. Pri?? ????ing ?r windfall t?x??. Pri?? capping i? used f?r ?riv?tiz?d utilities e.g. CPI â€" X. However, r?gul?t?r? m?? b? ?ubj??t to regulatory capture.Br??k up ?xi?ting m?n???li??: Thi? i? a m?r? dr??ti? way t? in?r???? ??m??titi?n. But, in ??m? ????? , it may damage th? ?r?gr??? of th? firm.N?t all m?n???li?? ?r? in?ffi?i?nt. S?m? firms generate m?n???l? power because th?? ?r? efficient, dynamic and ?u?????ful. ?.g. G??gl?. Th?r?f?r?, it is in?dvi??bl? t? br??k u? th??? ??m??ni??.2. Ext?rn?lit?Sometimes w? in?ur ???t th?t are n?t dir??tl? link?d t? u?, either ?uff?ring ?t th? end ?f ?nvir?nm?nt?l ??lluti?n by a ?h?mi??l company ?r be benefiting fr?m the measures im?l?m?nt?d b? a g?v?rnm?nt on th??? ??m??ni?? to manage the pollution t? b?r??t minimum.What i? ?n Ext?rn?lit??An ?xt?rn?lit? i? a positive ?r n?g?tiv? consequence ?f an ???n?mi? ??tivit? experienced by unrelated third ??rti??. P?lluti?n ?mitt?d b? a f??t?r? th?t ???il? th? surrounding ?nvir?nm?nt and ?ff??t? th? h??lth of n??rb? r??id?nt? is ?n ?x?m?l? of a n?g?tiv? ?xt?rn?lit?. Th? effect of a w?ll-?du??t?d labor force ?n th? ?r?du?tivit? ?f a company i? ?n ?x?m?l? ?f a ???itiv? externality.Alm??t all externalities ?r? considered t? be technical ?xt?rn?liti??. These t ypes ?f ?xt?rn?liti?? have ?n impact on the ??n?um?ti?n ?nd ?r?du?ti?n ????rtuniti?? of unrelated third parties, but th? price ?f consumption d??? not in?lud? th? ?xt?rn?liti??.Thi? m?k?? it ?? there i? a diff?r?n?? b?tw??n the g?in ?r l??? of private individu?l? ?nd the aggregate g?in ?r l??? ?f the ???i?t? ?? a whole.Oftentimes, th? ??ti?n ?f an individu?l ?r ?rg?niz?ti?n r??ult? in ???itiv? private g?in? but detracts fr?m th? overall ???n?m?, ?nd this i? wh?r? m?rk?t failure ??t? in.Many economists consider technical ?xt?rn?liti?? t? b? market d?fi?i?n?i??.Thi? i? wh? people advocate f?r government intervention t? curb n?g?tiv? ?xt?rn?liti?? thr?ugh taxation ?nd r?gul?ti?n.Positive and Negative ExternalitiesM??t externalities ?r? n?g?tiv?. Pollution, f?r ?x?m?l?, i? a well-known n?g?tiv? externality. A ??r??r?ti?n may decide t? ?ut ???t? ?nd in?r???? ?r?fit? b? im?l?m?nting n?w operations that ?r? more h?rmful for th? ?nvir?nm?nt.Th? corporation realizes ???t? in th? form ?f ?x?? nding it? operations but ?l?? g?n?r?t?d r?turn? th?t are higher than th? ???t?.H?w?v?r, the ?xt?rn?lit? also increases th? ?ggr?g?t? cost to th? economy ?nd ???i?t?, m?king it a n?g?tiv? ?xt?rn?lit?. Externalities ?r? negative wh?n th? ???i?l ???t? ?utw?igh th? ?riv?t? costs.S?m? externalities ?r? positive. Positive ?xt?rn?liti?? ???ur wh?n there i? a ???itiv? gain ?n b?th the ?riv?t? l?v?l ?nd social level. Research ?nd d?v?l??m?nt (RD) ??ndu?t?d b? a company ??n be a ???itiv? ?xt?rn?lit?. RD increases th? private profits ?f a ??m??n? but also h?? the ?dd?d benefit ?f in?r???ing th? g?n?r?l l?v?l ?f knowledge within a ???i?t?.S?, whil? a ??m??n? ?u?h ?? Google profits ?ff ?f it? M??? application, ???i?t? ?? a wh?l? gr??tl? b?n?fit? in th? f?rm of a useful GPS t??l. P??itiv? externalities h?v? public, or social, r?turn? that are higher th?n th? ?riv?t? r?turn?.H?w to Overcome Ext?rn?liti??: P???ibl? SolutionsS?v?r?l ????ibl? ??luti?n? ?xi?t t? ?v?r??m? th? problems that ?ri?? fr?m e xternalities. These ??n in?lud? those from b?th th? ?ubli? ?nd ?riv?t? ???t?r?.T?x?? ?r? one t??? ?f solution to ?v?r??m? ?xt?rn?liti??. T? h?l? r?du?? th? n?g?tiv? effects ?f certain externalities (like pollution), governments ??n im???? a tax ?n th? g??d? ?ff??ting th?m.Th? t?x, ??ll?d a Pigovian tax (n?m?d ?ft?r ???n?mi?t Arthur C. Pig?u), i? ??n?id?r?d t? b? equal t? the value of th? negative externality. Thi? t?x i? meant t? di???ur?g? ??tiviti?? th?t impose a net ???t t? an unrelated third ??rt?.Th?t m??n? th?t b? im???ing thi? type ?f tax, it will r?du?? th? m?rk?t ?ut??m? ?f th? ?xt?rn?lit? to ?n amount th?t i? ??n?id?r?d ?ffi?i?nt.Sub?idi?? ??n also be ?ut into ?l???, which h?l?? in?r???? ??n?um?ti?n ?f a ???itiv? ?xt?rn?lit?. One ?x?m?l? w?uld b? t? subsidize ?r?h?rd? th?t ?l?nt fruit trees in order to ??rr??t the ???itiv? ?xt?rn?liti?? th?? offer to b??k????r?.Governments ??n also im?l?m?nt r?gul?ti?n t? ?ff??t the ?ff??t? ?f ?xt?rn?liti??, ?nd i? considered t? be th? m?? t ??mm?n kind ?f ??luti?n.A? mentioned ?b?v?, people ?ft?n turn to governments t? ???? ?nd ?n??t legislation ?nd r?gul?ti?n to ?urb the negative side of externalities. S?v?r?l ?x?m?l?? include ?nvir?nm?nt?l r?gul?ti?n? ?r h??lth-r?l?t?d l?gi?l?ti?n.3. Demerit GoodsA demerit g??d is d?fin?d ?? a g??d whi?h can have a n?g?tiv? impact ?n the ??n?um?r â€" but these d?m?ging effects may b? unkn?wn or ignored b? th? consumer.D?m?rit g??d? ?l?? u?u?ll? have n?g?tiv? ?xt?rn?liti?? â€" wh?r? consumption ??u??? a h?rmful ?ff??t ?n a third ??rt?.Examples ?f ??m? d?m?rit goods include;Al??h?lCig?r?tt??Drug?Junk foodG?mblingIn thi? case th? market fails b???u?? th??? g??d? ?r? over-consumed if l?ft t? th? fr?? m?rk?t. Ag?in, th? government mu?t ?t?? in t? ?t?? thi? ?v?r-??n?um?ti?n.In th? ???? of alcohol ?nd ?ig?r?tt??, th? government im????? ?uit? h??v? t?x?? ?nd duti??. Thi? m??n? that their ?ri?? rises ?ignifi??ntl? in the h??? th?t this will deter people fr?m ??n?um?ti?n.But giv?n th?t b?th g??d? h?v? v?r? in?l??ti? demand ?urv??, th? fall in d?m?nd i? ?m?ll r?l?tiv? t? th? t?x ri??. On? w?nd?r? if th? g?v?rnm?nt keeps r?i?ing these t?x?? b???u?? th?? care ?b?ut ?ur health ?r wh?th?r its just a good ??ur?? ?f t?x r?v?nu?!Simil?rl?, ?ig?r?tt? ?m?king by some individu?l? in ?ubli? ?l???? will r?du?? the b?n?fit? t? ?th?r? in the form ?f ????iv? ?m?king.Thi? m?? ?l?? l??d to high?r taxes for ?ll taxpayers whi?h the g?v?rnm?nt may need t? pay for in?r????d h??lth??r? in the future.H?w to h?ndl? d?m?rit g??d?: P???ibl? S?luti?n?S?v?r?l possible ??luti?n? ?xi?t t? ?v?r??m? the problems th?t ?ri?? fr?m d?m?rit goods.The government may ?tt?m?t t? r?du?? th? ??n?um?ti?n of demerit g??d? ?u?h as cigarettes, alcohol ?nd addictive drugs thr?ugh ??r?u??i?n; this i? m??t likely t? be ??hi?v?d thr?ugh n?g?tiv? ?dv?rti?ing campaigns, whi?h ?m?h??iz?? th? d?ng?r? ?f drink-driving, drug ?bu?? etc.The ?im here is th? ?????it? of n?rm?l ??mm?r?i?l advertising, namely to shift th? demand f or d?m?rit g??d? t? th? n?g?tiv? side.A ??ntr??ti?n ?f d?m?nd (??n?id?ring and r?du?ing the d?m?nd f?r a d?m?rit g??d) ??uld b? ??hi?v?d by th? im???iti?n of a tax ?n th? demerit good.Thi? would have th? effect ?f in?r???ing ???t ?f supply, th?r?b? raising the price and reducing th? ?m?unt consumed.If th? g?v?rnm?nt ??uld ???ur?t?l? ?????? the v?lu? ?f the marginal external ???t ??u??d by the ??n?um?ti?n ?f th? demerit g??d, a tax ??uiv?l?nt t? thi? ??uld be im????d, and a ???i?ll? ??timum outcome ??uld be achieved.H?w?v?r, in practice, ???ribing ?n accurate monetary v?lu? t? n?g?tiv? externalities i? ?xtr?m?l? diffi?ult t? d?, and th? d?m?nd f?r ?u?h g??d? ?? ?ig?r?tt?? and alcohol i? often highly inelastic, ?? that ?n? in?r???? in ?ri?? r??ulting from ?dditi?n?l t?x?ti?n ??u??? a l??? th?n ?r???rti?n?t? d??r???? in demand.Th? g?v?rnm?nt may use various f?rm? ?f r?gul?ti?n. In it? m??t ?xtr?m? form, regulation ??uld b? u??d t? im???? a ??m?l?t? ban on a d?m?rit g??d, ?u?h th?t its ??n?um?ti?n i? m?d? ill?g?l; f?r ?x?m?l?, the Pr?hibiti?n L?w? in th? USA in th? 1930’s criminalized the sale ?nd ??n?um?ti?n ?f ?l??h?l, ?? d??? th? l?w at th? moment in S?udi Arabia; ?l?? in th? UK ?nd many ?th?r ??untri?? t?d?? ?n??n? f?und guilt? ?f ??lling or ??n?uming h?r?in? ??n b? imprisoned.H?w?v?r, th? ?ff??t ?f ?u?h r?gul?ti?n i? rarely to ??m?l?t?l? ?limin?t? th? market for th? d?m?rit g??d; r?th?r, it i? u?u?ll? driv?n underground in th? f?rm ?f ?n un?ffi?i?l ?r hidden m?rk?t.L??? ??v?r? regulatory controls might take the f?rm of ???ti?l r??tri?ti?n? ?.g. people m?? b? disbarred from smoking in th?ir ?l??? of w?rk, ?n public tr?n???rt and in ?in?m?? ?nd r??t?ur?nt?; th?r? m?? be time r??tri?ti?n? in th?t it may b? ill?g?l t? ??ll alcohol during ??rt?in ??ri?d? ?f the day, or th?r? m?? be ?g? r??tri?ti?n? in t?rm? ?f a minimum age being ?ti?ul?t?d ?t whi?h ??ung ????l? ?r? ??rmitt?d to bu? cigarettes and alcohol.4. Income and Wealth InequalityIn a market economy ?n ind ividu?l? ?bilit? t? ??n?um? goods services d???nd? upon his/her in??m? ?r ?th?r resources such as savings.Th? ?r?v?l?n?? ?f in??m? inequality in fr?? market ???n?mi?? indi??t?? th?t in??u?lit? m?? be th? r??ult ?f a m?rk?t failure.Those who are b?rn rich ?r? more lik?l? t? become ri?h, while individu?l? who ?r? b?rn poor ?r? more lik?l? to live a life ?f r?l?tiv? ??v?rt?.An un??u?l di?tributi?n ?f in??m? ?nd w??lth may r??ult in an unsatisfactory allocation ?f r???ur??? and ??n also l??d to ?li?n?ti?n and ?n??ur?g? ?rim? with n?g?tiv? ??n???u?n??? for th? rest ?f society.Th? fr??-m?rk?t ???t?m will n?t ?lw??? respond t? th? n??d? and w?nt? of ????l? with insufficient ???n?mi? v?t?? t? h?v? any im???t ?n market d?m?nd. Wh?t m?tt?r? in a m?rk?t based ???t?m is ??ur ?ff??tiv? d?m?nd f?r goods ?nd ??rvi???.Many ??liti?i?n? ?nd ??m? ???n?mi?t? like to ?rgu? th?t in??m? in??u?lit? i? n?t as evil ?? m?n? ????l? m?k? it ?ut t? b?, and that gr??t?r in??m? in??u?lit? ??n ??tu?ll? increase th ? incentive f?r ???r?r h?u??h?ld? to work h?rd?r t? get ri?h, ??ntributing t? th? ???n?mi? gr?wth ?f th? n?ti?n as a whole.And thi? ?ll?w? th? ri?h t? keep m?r? ?f their income, whi?h in turn l??d? more ????l? t? want t? work hard to g?t ri?h, ?? they will b? ?bl? t? ?nj?? th? rewards ?f their h?rd w?rk.Here are ??m? scenarios t? h?l? buttr??? my pointThe ri?h contribute to gr?wth ?br??d, r?th?r than at home: Rich households’ higher in??m?? ?ll?w th?m t? ??n?um? more d?m??ti? output ?nd im??rt?d g??d? and services, but it also ?ll?w? th?m to ??v? m?r?, whi?h sometimes translates int? m?r? inv??tm?nt.But m?r? inv??tm?nt d??? n?t always translate int? domestic ???n?mi? growth, since investment i? now gl?b?l. A ri?h ??r??n ??ving m?r? d??? n?t mean a firm in hi? or h?r ??untr? will h?v? access t? ?h????r capital, ?? domestic savings m?? fuel inv??tm?nt in ?m?rging markets ?r elsewhere abroad.F?r?ign inv??tm?nt r??ulting fr?m ??ving? ?m?ng ri?h ????l? ??unt? as a l??k?g? fr?m hi? or h er countrys circular fl?w of in??m?, l??ving less income within th? ??untr? f?r the middle and low in??m? earners.Essentially, mu?h ?f the income ??rn?d b? th? ri?h i? ??v?d ?br??d, contributing to ?m?l??m?nt ?nd gr?wth ?v?r????, reducing incomes ?f th? middle class ?t h?m?.Reduced ?u???rt f?r th? ?r?vi?i?n ?f ?ubli? g??d?: Wh?n examining living ?t?nd?rd?, m?r? th?n just in??m? must b? considered, but ?l?? ?????? t? ?du??ti?n, provision ?f health ??r? ?nd ?th?r public g??d? ?u?h as public ??f?t? and ???urit?.Ri?h?r h?u??h?ld? are l??? int?r??t?d in things lik? ?ubli? ??h??l? ?nd ???i?l w?lf?r? ?r?gr?m?, ?? they d? not rely ?n th??? f?r th?ir ?wn well-being.Therefore, th? ri?h?r the t?? 10% b???m?, th? gr??t?r th?ir in??ntiv? t? work ?g?in?t efforts t? fund public ?du??ti?n, ?ubli? h??lth and ?ubli? ??f?t?.Th? und?r provision ?f th??? ???i?l welfare ?nh?n?ing goods b? g?v?rnm?nt furth?r widens th? g?? between th? living standards of th? ri?h??t ?nd th? middle class, ?nd it i? n?v?r ? lw??? the b??t for ?n? market in ?n? ???n?m?.SolutionsOver th? ???r? World B?nk proffered a f?w ways to reduce income in??u?lit?. Th?? in?lud?Building tr?n???r?nt and ?ffi?i?nt product markets: Without well-functioning product m?rk?t?, n?w f?rm?l sector ?m?l??m?nt ????rtuniti??, th? k?? t? r?du?ing in??m? di???riti??, will not ?m?rg?. C?m??titiv? ?r?du?t markets are also ????nti?l t? ?timul?ting the restructuring of n?nvi?bl? ?nt?r?ri???. Su?h restructuring w?uld r?du?? th? ?r?v?l?n?? ?f w?g? ?rr??r? (?r forced borrowing from w?rk?r?), whi?h i? contributing to high wage in??u?lit? in some ??rt?. In?r????d ??m??titi?n, liberalization, ?nd d?r?gul?ti?n w?uld r?du?? monopoly r?nt?. This, in turn, w?uld dimini?h the gains to firm? fr?m l?bb?ing ?nd ??rru?ting th? ?t?t?. St?t? capture w?uld b? r?du??d ?nd ?v?r?ll g?v?rn?n?? improved. All of th??? developments ??n ?r?m?t? gr?wth, and th?? can im?r?v? distributional ?ut??m??.Expanding fin?n?i?l Markets: Low w?g??, particularly for th? less ?du??t?d, i? ?n important d?t?rmin?nt ?f in??m? in??u?lit? and ??v?rt?. But wages ?r? markedly influ?n??d by the amount of ???it?l with which workers ??n ???r?t?. Wh?n formal labor m?rk?t? b???m? r?l?tiv?l? unim??rt?nt and households r???rt to self-employment ?nd small-scale ?ntr??r?n?uri?l ??tivit? f?r th?ir m?in ??ur?? of income, th? ?v?il?bilit? ?f ?r?dit t? finance ???it?l inv??tm?nt? b???m?? ?riti??l. Ind??d, it ??n become th? key d?t?rmin?nt of th? r?turn? t? l?b?r ?nd h?n?? ?f a family’s w?ll-b?ing. Thi? i? ?????i?ll? true f?r rur?l f?mili?? wh? m?? depend ??l?l? ?n the income g?n?r?t?d fr?m th?ir farming activities.Raising the in??m?? of those at th? b?tt?m thr?ugh labor market r?f?rm?: Th? g?v?rnm?nt ??n im?l?m?nt ??li?i?? t? improve th? minimum w?g? for workers. This in turn ??n im?r?v? the m?rk?t? ?ffi?i?n?? b? im?r?ving the ?u??l? f?r d?m?nd thr?ugh im?r?v?d ?r?du?tivit? of th? w?rk?r? in all sectors.5. A??mm?tri? InformationAsymmetric inf?rm?ti?n is the ????i?liz?ti? n and divi?i?n of kn?wl?dg? in society ?? ???li?d t? ???n?mi? tr?d?. F?r ?x?m?l?, medical d??t?r? typically kn?w more about m?di??l practice than th?ir ??ti?nt?.Aft?r all, through ?xt?n?iv? ?du??ti?n and training, d??t?r? ????i?liz? in medicine, whereas m??t patients d? not. Th? ??m? ?rin?i?l? ???li?? to ?r?hit??t?, t???h?r?, police officers, ?tt?rn???, engineers, fitn??? in?tru?t?r?, ?nd ?th?r ????i?ll? trained ?r?f???i?n?l?.The im??rf??t inf?rm?ti?n causes ?n imb?l?n?? ?f power. F?r example, when ??u are trying t? n?g?ti?t? your ??l?r?, ??u will n?t know th? m?ximum ??ur ?m?l???r i? willing t? pay ?nd ??ur ?m?l???r will n?t kn?w th? minimum ??u will be willing to ?????t.A??ur?t? inf?rm?ti?n i? ????nti?l f?r ??und ???n?mi? d??i?i?n?. Wh?n a market experiences ?n imb?l?n?? it can l??d t? m?rk?t f?ilur?.In ??rt?in ?ir?um?t?n???, ???mm?tri? information m?? lead t? ?dv?r?? ??l??ti?n ?r m?r?l h?z?rd. These ?r? situations where individual economic decisions ?r? hypothetically w?r?? than th?? w?uld have been h?d ?ll ??rti?? ????????d more ??mm?tri??l inf?rm?ti?n.M??t ?f th? tim?, the ??luti?n? t? ?dv?r?? ??l??ti?n and moral h?z?rd ?r? n?t ??m?li??t?d.Adv?r?? S?l??ti?nAdv?r?? ??l??ti?n i? a term u??d in ???n?mi?? that refers to a ?r????? in which undesired r??ult? occur wh?n bu??r? and ??ll?r? h?v? access t? diff?r?nt/im??rf??t information. Th? un?v?n knowledge ??u??? th? price and ?u?ntit? ?f g??d? ?r ??rvi??? in a m?rk?t to shift.Thi? results in “b?d” ?r?du?t? ?r services b?ing selected. For ?x?m?l?, if a bank ??t ?n? price f?r ?ll of it? checking ????unt customers it runs th? risk ?f being adversely ?ff??t?d b? it? l?w-b?l?n?? and high activity ?u?t?m?r?. Th? individu?l price would g?n?r?t? a l?w profit for th? bank.C?n?id?r ?dv?r?? ??l??ti?n in lif? insurance or fir? in?ur?n??. High-risk ?u?t?m?r?, ?u?h ?? smokers, th? ?ld?rl?, or those living in dr? ?nvir?nm?nt?, m?? b? m?r? lik?l? t? ?ur?h??? in?ur?n??. Thi? could r?i?? insurance premiums f?r ?ll ?u?t?m?r?, forcing th? healthy t? withdr?w.Th? ??luti?n is t? ??rf?rm ??tu?ri?l w?rk ?nd in?ur?n?? ??r??ning ?nd th?n charge diff?r?nt premiums t? ?u?t?m?r? based on their ?????i?t?d ??t?nti?l risks.Moral H?z?rd?In addition t? ?dv?r?? ??l??ti?n, m?r?l hazards are ?l?? a result ?f ???mm?tri? inf?rm?ti?n. A m?r?l h?z?rd i? a ?itu?ti?n where a ??rt? will t?k? ri?k? b???u?? the ???t th?t ??uld in?ur will n?t be felt by th? party t?king the risk.A m?r?l hazard ??n ???ur wh?n th? ??ti?n? ?f ?n? party may ?h?ng? t? th? d?trim?nt ?f another after a fin?n?i?l transaction. In r?l?ti?n to ???mm?tri? inf?rm?ti?n, m?r?l h?z?rd may ???ur if one ??rt? is insulated fr?m ri?k and h?? m?r? information ?b?ut it? ??ti?n? ?nd int?nti?n? th?n th? ??rt? paying f?r th? n?g?tiv? consequences ?f th? risk.F?r ?x?m?l?, m?r?l h?z?rd? ???ur in employment r?l?ti?n?hi?? inv?lving employees ?nd m?n?g?m?nt. Wh?n a firm ??nn?t observe all ?f th? ??ti?n? ?f ?m?l????? ?nd m?n?g?r? th?r? i? the ?h?n?? th?t ??r?l??? ?nd ??lfi?h d? ?i?i?n m?king will occur.A??mm?tri? information ?t?rt? the downward ???n?mi? spiral f?r a firm. A lack ?f ??u?l information ??u??? ???n?mi? imb?l?n??? th?t r??ult in adverse ??l??ti?n and moral h?z?rd?.All of th??? ???n?mi? w??kn????? h?v? th? ??t?nti?l t? l??d to market f?ilur?. So m?rk?t f?ilur? will occur in a scenario wh?r? an individual or firm’s ?ur?uit ?f ?ur? self interest l??d? t? inefficient r??ult?.F?r ?x?m?l?, th? m?in market f?ilur? in retirement insurance markets i? m?r?l h?z?rd â€" ????l? wh? will not ??v? for r?tir?m?nt b???u?? th?? b?li?v? th?t a ??m????i?n?t? ???i?t? will giv? th?m enough to ?urviv? in any case.Th? ??luti?n is t? force ????l? to ??v? ??m? of th?ir ????h??k? ???h month so that, ?v?n if it d???n’t full? ??v?r th?ir retirement expenses, ?t least th??’ll ??ntribut? ??m?thing.Overcoming Asymmetric inf?rm?ti?nThere are a few br??d m?th?d? ?f ?ddr???ing the adverse ??l??ti?n problem. On? v?r? clear ??luti?n is for ?r?du??r? to ?r?vid? w?rr?nti??, gu ?r?nt??? and refunds. This i? ??rti?ul?rl? notable in th? used car market.An?th?r intuitiv? ?nd n?tur?l r????n?? is f?r ??n?um?r? ?nd competitors t? act ?? monitors f?r ???h ?th?r. C?n?um?r Reports, Underwriters Laboratory, n?t?ri?? public ?nd ?nlin? r?vi?w ??rvi??? ?u?h ?? Yelp h?l? bridg? g??? in inf?rm?ti?n.T? also overcome ???mm?tri? inf?rm?ti?n in insurance, in?ur?r? will giv? big di???unt? f?r ‘no claims b?nu???’ this is th? b??t way ?f gaining b?tt?r inf?rm?ti?n ?b?ut ‘??r?ful’ and ‘unlu?k?’ consumers.In th? ?????t ?f ??r ?ur?h??? of a second-hand car f?r $5000, it w?uld b? w?rth ???ing $100 to a qualified m??h?ni? t? run th? car thr?ugh ind???nd?nt t??t?. This w?uld give ??u more inf?rm?ti?n. Al??, th? car d??l?r w?uld be wary ?f tr?ing to sell ‘duds’ if ??u w?r? bringing a ?u?lifi?d m??h?ni? to test.Th?nk? to th? internet, it h?? h?l??d t? reduce the in?id?n?? of ???mm?tri? information. F?r ?x?m?l?, wh?n gu??t? go to vi?it h?t?l? ?nd r??t?ur?nt? â€" they can look at ?nlin? reviews t? have a b?tt?r idea what to ?x???t. Selling ????nd hand g??d? thr?ugh market ?l???? like EB?? r?li?? ?n sellers building up g??d reviews.Th?r?f?r?, th?r? is an in??ntiv? to only ??ll goods which ?r? correctly marketed.6. Im??rf??t M?rk?tAn im??rf??t m?rk?t r?f?r? t? any ???n?mi? m?rk?t th?t does not meet th? rigorous ?t?nd?rd? of a h???th?ti??l ??rf??tl? (?r ?ur?l?) ??m??titiv? m?rk?t, ?? ??t?bli?h?d b? M?r?h?lli?n ??rti?l equilibrium m?d?l?.An im??rf??t m?rk?t ?ri??? wh?n?v?r individu?l bu??r? ?nd sellers ??n influ?n?? prices and production, ?r ?th?rwi?? wh?n ??rf??t inf?rm?ti?n i? n?t kn?wn to ?ll m?rk?t ??t?r?.All real-world markets are th??r?ti??ll? imperfect, ?nd th? ?tud? ?f real m?rk?t? is ?lw??? ??m?li??t?d b? various im??rf??ti?n?. F?r example, tr?d?r? in a fin?n?i?l m?rk?t do n?t possess ??rf??t ?r even id?nti??l kn?wl?dg? ?b?ut fin?n?i?l ?r?du?t?.Th? tr?d?r? and ????t? in a fin?n?i?l m?rk?t ?r? not ??rf??tl? h?m?g?n??u?. N?w information i? n?t in ?t?nt?n??u?l? tr?n?mitt?d to all ??t?r?, ?nd th?r? does n?t exist ?n infinit? v?l??it? of r???ti?n? th?r??ft?r. E??n?mi?t? only u?? ??rf??t competition m?d?l? t? think through th? implications of ???n?mi? ??tivit?.The m?nik?r imperfect m?rk?t i? ??m?wh?t mi?l??ding. L?? readers m?? mistakenly ???um? an imperfect m?rk?t i? d???l? fl?w?d ?r undesirable, but this i? n?t n??????ril? tru?. Th? r?ng? ?f m?rk?t im??rf??ti?n? is ?? wid? ?? th? r?ng? ?f ?ll r??l-w?rld m?rk?t?; ??m? ?r? mu?h m?r? ?r much less efficient th?n ?th?r?.P?rf??t M?rk?t? Can N?v?r Exi?tN? serious economists b?li?v? th?t a ??rf??tl? competitive m?rk?t ??uld ever arise, ?nd v?r? few consider such a market d??ir?bl?. N? m?rk?t can ?v?r have ?n unlimited numb?r ?f bu??r? ?nd sellers.E??n?mi? g??d? in ?v?r? m?rk?t ?r? h?t?r?g?n??u?, n?t h?m?g?n??u?, ?? l?ng ?? more than ?n? producer ?xi?t?. Div?r?it? ?f g??d? and div?r?it? ?f t??t?? ?r? preferable ?????t? of im??rf??t m?rk?t?.Perfect m?rk?t? ?r? u??ful t? think through th e logic ?f ?ri???, incentives and economic in??ntiv??. It i? a mistake, however, t? tr? ?xtr???l?ting the rul?? ?f ??rf??t ??m??titi?n into a r??l-w?rld ???n?ri?.L?gi??l problems ?ri?? fr?m th? ?t?rt, ?????i?ll? th? fact th?t it i? im????ibl? for ?n? ?ur?l? ??m??titiv? indu?tr? t? ??n??iv?bl? attain a state ?f equilibrium from ?n? ?th?r ???iti?n. P?rf??t ??m??titi?n can ?nl? b? theoretically ???um?d; it can never b? d?n?mi??ll? r???h?d.Im?li??ti?n? ?f Im??rf??t MarketsNot ?ll m?rk?t imperfections ?r? harmless ?r natural. Situ?ti?n? ??n arise in whi?h t?? few ??ll?r? control too much ?f a single m?rk?t, ?r wh?n ?ri??? f?il to ?d??u?t?l? ?dju?t to m?t?ri?l ?h?ng?? in m?rk?t ??nditi?n?. It is from th??? instances th?t th? m?j?rit? of ???n?mi? d?b?t? originates.S?m? economists ?rgu? that ?n? d?vi?ti?n fr?m ??rf??t ??m??titi?n m?d?l? ju?tifi?? g?v?rnm?nt int?rv?nti?n t? promote increased efficiency in ?r?du?ti?n or di?tributi?n.Su?h int?rv?nti?n? m?? ??m? in the form ?f m?n?t?r? ??li??, fi???l policy ?r m?rk?t r?gul?ti?n. On? ??mm?n ?x?m?l? ?f ?u?h int?rv?nti?ni?m is ?nti-tru?t l?w, whi?h i? ?x?li?itl? d?riv?d from perfect ??m??titi?n th??r?.Oth?r economists argue th?t g?v?rnm?nt intervention might be n??????r? to ??rr??t im??rf??t m?rk?t?, but n?t always. Thi? i? b???u?? g?v?rnm?nt? ?r? ?l?? im??rf??t, and government ??t?r? m?? n?t ??????? th? ??rr??t in??ntiv?? ?r information t? int?rf?r? ??rr??tl?. Fin?ll?, m?n? ???n?mi?t? ?rgu? g?v?rnm?nt int?rv?nti?n is rarely, if ?v?r, ju?tifi?d in markets.Th? Au?tri?n ?nd Chi??g? ??h??l? n?t?bl? blame many market im??rf??ti?n? ?n erroneous g?v?rnm?nt intervention.Market f?ilur? i? an ??t?bli?h?d, well-understood fi?ld ?f ?tud? in mainstream economics. G?n?r?ti?n? of ???n?mi?t? accept th? b??i?? ?f m?rk?t f?ilur?.Consider th? f?ur biggest m?rk?t failures in hum?n hi?t?r?:Th? housing-financial asset bubbl?: at l???t $8 trilli?nH??lth ??r? in Am?ri??: trilli?n? ??r ???r, ?ng?ingClim?t? change: $40 trilli?n, ?? f?rFr?? tr?d?: $8 trillion, ?? farThe h?u?ing ?nd financial ????t bubble: The housing ?nd financial ????t bubble is a ?l???i? m?rk?t f?ilur?. Mortgage br?k?r? mi?l?d h?m? buyers into bad mortgages. Banks bundl?d unaffordable mortgages into bogus securities ?nd sold th?m t? investors. Rating ?g?n?i?? ?r?vid?d false security t? inv??t?r?. H?rd m?nt?lit? and m???iv? gr?u?-think infl?t?d th? ????t bubbl?. L????? in h?u?ing values ?l?n? ?x???d?d $8 trillion. W? ?h?uld ?dd costs f?r th? r?????i?n, milli?n? ?f f?r??l???d h?m??, ??r??n?l bankruptcies, l??t ????rtuniti??, milli?n? ?f w?rk?r? unemployed and ??r??r? damaged ??rm?n?ntl?. Markets rewarded bad b?h?vi?r and ?uni?h?d milli?n? wh? b?h?v?d responsibly.H??lth ??r?: H??lth care in Am?ri?? w??t?? roughly $1 trilli?n ??r ???r, ??m??r?d t? ?th?r w??lth? ??untri??, ?nd the problem i? ?t??dil? worsening. First, h??lth care i? n?t a m?rk?t. A market inv?lv?? bu??r? ?nd ??ll?r?. In Am?ri??n h??lth ??r?, we’re n?t r??ll? ?ur? wh? i? a bu??r ?nd a seller. As a r??ult, m?rk?t incentives ?r? b?dl? mi??lign?d. Very f?w patients ?h?? ?r?und f?r d??l?. Aft?r th? d??t?r ???? the word “??n??r,” most people l??? th?ir ?h???ing in?tin?t?.Climate change: According to th? ?hi?f ???n?mi?t f?r the W?rld Bank, Ni?h?l?? St?rn, ?lim?t? ?h?ng? i? th? gr??t??t m?rk?t f?ilur? in hum?n history. Greenhouse gas emissions are a classic ?xt?rn?lit?, wh?r? ?v?r??n? ?n ??rth ?ub?idiz?? ?il ??m??ni?? ?nd consumers ?f f???il fuels. Fossil fu?l? ?r? under-priced b? $40 trillion â€" a r?ugh ??tim?t? ?f the cost th?t futur? g?n?r?ti?n? will ??? for d?m?g? we’re d?ing t? the E?rth.Free trade i? a m?rk?t f?ilur?, but it i? also an int?ll??tu?l f?ilur? f?r th? economics ?r?f???i?n, ?nd a policy f?ilur? ?n the part ?f ?l??t?d officials. Our ?umul?tiv? tr?d? debt since NAFTA is well ?v?r $8 trillion. Our economy i? d?-indu?tri?lizing, with thousands ?f factories ?l???d, millions ?f j?b? lost, ?nd no im?r?v?m?nt in ?ight. Fr?? trade h?? ?nj???d in?x?li??bl? un????il? bl? r?v?r?n?? ?in?? D?vid Ricardo introduced it in 1817. It w?? unrealistic in 1817, ?nd it i? unrealistic today.It ?t?rt? with h???l???l? id??liz?d ???um?ti?n?, ???li?d blindl? in the ??m?l?x gl?b?l economy, wh?r? tr?ding partners and multin?ti?n?l companies exploit those assumptions f?r th?ir own ?ur?????. W? were ?r?mi??d mutu?l g?in, but we ?uff?r hug? deficits, ??n??ntr?ti?n ?f wealth and ??w?r ?m?ng trade’s “winners” ?nd l??? of bargaining ??w?r, de-industrialization and ?t?gn?nt wages for th? r??t ?f u?.If th? study ?f free trade w?r? m?v?d fr?m ???n?mi?? departments in univ?r?iti?? to m?th?m?ti?? d???rtm?nt?, it w?uld b? di??r?dit?d on l?gi??l gr?und? b? th? ?nd ?f the fir?t d??. Simil?rl?, it? h?lf-lif? in a ?h??i??, ??tr?n?m?, ?r ?h?mi?tr? d???rtm?nt w?uld b? a w??k or tw? â€" th? time it would t?k? t? ??nd graduates ?tud?nt? t? th? l?b t? ??ll??t d?t?.You ?h?uld know that th? ??nv?nti?n?l fr?? tr?d? th??r? i? ??n?id?r?d largely irrelevant in business schools, where ?tud?nt? l??rn th? r??liti?? ?f how to m?v? ???it?l ?nd ?r?du?ti?n ?r?und th? w?rld. Worse b? f?r, our so-called fr?? trade ?gr??m?nt? are really designed t? ?r?t??t and enrich gl?b?l companies. These agreements toss aside d?m??r?ti? ?h??k? ?nd b?l?n???, w??k?n ?ivil society ?nd erode th? middl? class.Under th? right ??nditi?n?, m?rk?t? will, in fact, produce br??d-b???d w?ll-b?ing. In 1776, Ad?m Smith argued th?t b?n?fi?i?l m?rk?t ??ntr?l occurred wh?n m?r?h?nt? in th? village w?r? ??r??n?ll? ??nn??t?d t? th? well-being ?f th?ir neighbors, who liv?d and ?h????d in the vill?g?. S??i?l ?nd ???n?mi? cohesion would ?r?v?nt m?rk?t f?ilur?.M?rk?t? f?il. A l?gitim?t? purpose ?f ?ubli? ??li?? i? to intervene in m?rk?t? t? ?r?v?nt m?rk?t failure. Publi? policy h?? a necessary r?l? in protecting th? ?nvir?nm?nt, hum?n rights, l?b?r right?, ?du??ti?n ?nd ?ubli? h??lth, managing gr?wth, regulating markets, ?nd m?n?ging global tr?d?.CONCLUSIONS? ?t the ?nd ?f th? day, everyone h?? a part to pla y in fighting m?rk?t f?ilur?, th? private (b? ?r?du?ing quality goods and ??rvi??? at th? actual ?ri?? with?ut ??n?id?ring ??r??n?l int?r??t) and public sector (by ?r?viding transparent m?rk?t ?tru?tur??), th? g?v?rnm?nt (b? ?r?viding ?n enabling ?nvir?nm?nt ?nd bu?in??? policies f?r ?ll ???t?r? in th? system t? grow) and the g?n?r?l ?ubli? (b? b??n true in wh?t?v?r ???iti?n w? find ?ur??lv??).And ?g?in, people must kn?w th?t that market ?u??????h?r??t?riz?d b? ?t?bl? and ?u?t?in?bl? gr?wth levels, g?n?r?ll? f?lling price l?v?l?, ?nd increasing r??l in??m??i? th? n?rm in th? ?b??n?? ?f state intervention.

Divorce Essay - 935 Words

The number of children who were living with only one of their biological parents from 1900 to 1972 increased by 700%. Can we call this beneficial on the childs maturing and mental stability and development? Between 1970 and 1996 the proportion of children under 18 living with only one of their parents grew from 12% to 28%. While the percentage of children living with both parents declined from 85% to 68%. As this century has passed, more and more divorces are taking place at an increased rate each year, and while it may be hard on the parents, its detrimental to so many children. It confuses them, upsets them, and leaves them questioning many things, most of which they will never find out until they are older. From 1950 to 1980 there†¦show more content†¦A third of marriages fail, and over a third of those break-ups involve children. One-fifth of Canadian children have lost a parent to divorce, with an effect that some sociologists now say can be quot;worse than a parents death.quot; Divorce is consistently associated with juvenile emotional disorders, crime, suicide, promiscuity and later marital break-up.quot; So as we all can see now that marriage break ups are at a increased rate and still the rate continues to increase. But how is this affecting our children? Tim indicated that divorce was closely related to disorder in juvenile crime, suicide and promiscuity. The statistics back this statement up. In 1992 1 in 3 women were assaulted by a domestic partner, thats four million in a single year and the primary reason is divorces and marital problems. When children are exposed to this, they learn from it unfortunatly. The sadder thing for the women is that a man will receive on average for killing his partner 2 to 6 years of imprisionment. While women who kill their partners are given 15 years on average. Problem youth is a big issue among authorities and citizens today. In Canada 1017 of every 100000 youth are locked up in jail. 415 of these will be incarcerated for long periods of time. What the annoying thing is, is WHAT is causing this behavior, what is sparking it? What kind of childhoodShow MoreRelatedThe Divorce Of A Divorce941 Words   |  4 Pagesanymore. When they are unable to maintain their marriage, their solution is to choose is divorce. Divorce, is defined as, the legal dissolution of a marriage by a court or other competent body. In today’s society, divorce is more normal than ever before due to unhappy marriages. The effects of the divorce are emotional effects, financial problems, and direction to an improved lifestyle. When it comes to divorce there s so many emotions that are being effected in the situation such as depression, happinessRead MoreDivorce : The Divorce Rate1662 Words   |  7 PagesThe divorce rate, while fluctuating over time, has reached high percentages lately. As Coltrane and Adams posit, the high divorce rates are due in part to the fact that the expectations of marriage are high in high esteem. When it does not work out, people are anxious to try again to find the perfect partner. Divorce is what allows people that opportunity (Coltrane and Adams p. 201). However, the intricacies of divorce are complicated. Much of the conversation of divorce is focused on fault andRead MoreDivorce And The Divorce Process1471 Words   |  6 Pagesthe subject of divorce, it became very apparent that the stressors leading up to divorce, the entire legal process, adjusting to life afterward and everything in between, left little more than devastation in its wake. By and large, divorce is incred ibly taxing on several fronts. We will discuss the emotional ramifications of divorce for spouses and children, what environmental factors contribute strongest to the dissolution of marriage, what percentage of marriages end in divorce, and the estimationRead MoreThe Divorce Rate Of Divorce1123 Words   |  5 Pagesrelationship, therefore they choose divorce, which is one of the solutions to cope with problems between husband and wife. Furthermore, most people think carefully before they get marriage. However, the divorce rates trend to continually increase nowadays, thus it might be argued that divorces can be taken place easier than the past. In the United States, researchers estimate that 40%–50% of all first marriages, and 60% of second marriages, will end in divorce. Divorce has always been present in AmericanRead MoreThe Issue Of Divorce And Divorce Essay1672 Words   |  7 PagesIt is common gossip that half of marriages end in divorce. But this gossip is more true t han most would assume. One in every one hundred marriages in North Carolina as well as a genuine half of marriages across the United States end in divorce and, according to Jennifer Lansford, â€Å"50% of American children will experience their parents’ divorce† (140). This rate of separation is essentially a heads-or-tails on marriages to determine whether or not they will work out and if a child will be affectedRead MoreDivorce And Its Effect On Divorce2098 Words   |  9 PagesThe memories of divorce have never been more sorrowful to any age group than the children of divorced parents. Although a couple’s marriage vows usually include the phrase â€Å"till death do us part,† about half of all marriages end up in divorce (â€Å"Divorce†). The reasons for divorce could be very simple as well as they could be complex. Some reasons for divorce are adultery, simple arrogance, dishonesty, insecurity, domestic and sexual abuses. In some situation d ivorce may provide relief from theRead MoreThe Divorce Cycle : The Children Of Divorce986 Words   |  4 Pagesinterested in the topic: consequences in divorce. Being a child of divorced parents is something I have always thought about and how it will effect me later in life with my relationships. I wonder if I am more likely to have a divorce as well because my parents had one. I have found a couple articles that talk about this topic one titled, Understanding the Divorce Cycle: The Children of Divorce in their own Marriages and the another titled, Effects of Parental Divorce on Marital Commitment and ConfidenceRead MoreEffects Of Divorce On Children And Divorce1460 Words   |  6 PagesIn today’s world, most people accept divorce or separation as a way of life. Parents are unaware or do not understand the damage it can have on their children. However, in some instances, it is better to get out of an abusive relationship because that can be as toxic as divorce. On average, 50% of children who are born with married parents, will experience divorce before the age of 18 (Children and Divorce Baucom, 2010-2017). Along with divorce statistics, 40% of children in America are raisedRead MoreDivorce Rate And Divorce Rates1224 Words   |  5 PagesDivorce rate also known as divorce demography, which is the study of demographic factors that impact divorced as a social phenomenon, the divorce demography can clearly evaluate and reflect the marriage stability and happiness index of certain countries or area and that is the reason why data statistics of divorce rate is important. According to ONS (Office of National Statistics), the divorce rate has not been that low since 1974, when it was 0.9%. The number of divorces in 2014 was declined toRead MoreDivorce Effect On Children : Divorce1825 Words   |  8 PagesApril, 2016 Divorce Effect on Children Divorce seems to become more and more common nowadays. Divorce can be a simple or complicated process depending if children are involved. This process can have negative and positive effects in a child s life. A divorce is the legal process of a marriage coming apart. A divorce with children involve cost more and takes about eleven months for the marriage to end. The majority of the divorces happening in the United States involve children. Divorce has different

John F. Kennedy and the Civil Rights Movement Essay

In 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president of the United States. During his campaign he had promised to lead the country down the right path with the civil rights movement. This campaign promise had brought hope to many African-Americans throughout the nation. Ever since Lincoln, African-Americans have tended to side with the democrats and this election was no different. The Kennedy administration had noticed that the key to the presidency was partially the civil rights issue. While many citizens were on Kennedy’s side, he had his share of opposition. Malcolm X differed on the view of the President and observed that the civil rights movement wasn’t happening at the speed Kennedy had pledged. Malcolm X possessed other reasons for his†¦show more content†¦For over a decade the FBI had been operating on its own and without the supervision from the Department of Justice and Kennedy decided to change that. Hoover needed someone to answer to and Robert Kennedy wa s just the person according to his brother John. John had appointed Robert to Attorney General. The Kennedys did have a good relationship with Hoover in the beginning, but some think that Hoover had been plotting against the administration. The FBI, or in another word, Hoover, felt that Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam remained a threat to national security and tried to get the Kennedy Administration to agree. At first the Department of Justice didn’t see the problem as imminent as Hoover proposed (Carson 27). Malcolm X had been a very influential speaker in his day and delivered speeches to numerous crowds. His following overwhelmed the government and Hoover decided that the FBI should be documenting the actions of the Nation of Islam and especially its two leaders. Malcolm’s speeches talking about the â€Å"white devil† spurred concern in the Kennedy administration. Malcolm was against the white community but always denied being racist. Hoover couldn’t understand this and after hearing Malcolm say it plenty of times, he called Kennedy’s attention to it once again. From this time on Kennedy had kept tabs on him and felt that Malcolm was now a threat to theShow MoreRelatedJohn F. Kennedy : Reasons For The Civil Rights Movement883 Words   |  4 PagesPham Mr. Robins Pre- AP U.S. History 20 October 2015 Kennedy: Reasons to Remember the Name John Fitzgerald Kennedy, born in 1917, was the youngest ever to be elected president in the United States history, also the youngest to leave office when he was assassinated 3 years after his election. Regardless of his short time in office, he left an astonishing impact on every single individual and on the country as a whole. As a president, John F. Kennedy was successful in managing the economy as well asRead MoreThe John F. Kennedy s Speech On Civil Rights Movement Essay975 Words   |  4 PagesThe John F. Kennedy is 35th President of the United States was June 11, 1963 in work for Americans. On the country is White House in Oval Office from Washington, D.C. for history his Civil Rights Address. Kennedy wants to be announced and start a speech on civil rights Movement will explain about people in African American. The speech is history to tell of equality for African American with people in live were civil rights. We can show on notification for speak a television and some radio becauseRead MoreWhat Did The Assassination Of John. F Kennedy Affect The Civil Right Movement?2205 Words   |  9 Pagesassassination of John. F Kennedy affect the civil right movement?† The years from 1963-1964 will be the focus of this investigation, to allow for the analysis from the year of Kennedy’s assassination and to the end of the civil rights movement. This investigation will mainly focus on Lyndon B. Johnson participation during the civil rights movement but also other outside factors. This includes Martin Luther King. Lyndon Johnson and the Great Society and Legacies of the 1964 Civil Rights Act are the twoRead MoreImpact Of John F Kennedy On The Civil Rights Act Of 19641080 Words   |  5 PagesJohn F. Kennedy had a major influence on the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Prior to the act, segregation in the United States was still strongly supported, but civil rights groups continued to fight against racism. After the election of 1960, John F. Kennedy continually supported the civil rights movement and he created a Civil Rights Act to fight for equal rights. After his assassination in 1963, the Civil Rights Act act was passed. Segregation in the United States was very present priorRead More John F. Kennedys Civil Rights Speech1300 Words   |  5 Pagesdeserve civil rights? John F. Kennedy believed so during the Civil Rights Movement. The Civil Right Movement began around 1950 and ended around 1970. A few of the major leaders were Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, and John F. Kennedy. The purpose of the Civil Rights Movement was to end discrimination and prejudice among whites and blacks. Many African Americans did not have the same rights as Caucasians mainly due to their skin being a different color. A famous speech delivered by John F. KennedyRead MorePresident John F. Kennedy1608 Words   |  7 Pagesthey liked and enjoyed where they lead this country. One of those few presidents was President John F. Kennedy. Elected in 1960 as the 35th president of the United States, Kennedy became the youngest and first Roman Catholic president. He won the hearts of many Americans with his youthfulness and charmin g good looks. Kennedy won the presidential race against Richard Nixon in a very close race. John F. Kennedy s assassination occurred on November 22, 1963, in Dallas Texas, this caused much shock andRead MoreJohn F. Kennedys Life, Struggles, and Accomplishments Essay872 Words   |  4 Pages John F. Kennedy’s beginnings These words said by a powerful president, who had helped this country not only be successful but a very strong country. John F. Kennedy said these words to tell Americans, you need to care for your country not just yourself. John F. Kennedy was not only a president but he was in the U.S. Navy, which I think means he has pride in his country and was willing to do anything he could do to make it a better place. In chronological order I will discuss John F. Kennedy’sRead MoreJohn F. Kennedy : The Man Behind The President1561 Words   |  7 PagesJohn F. Kennedy: The Man behind the President John F. Kennedy changed America in a way in which no President had done before. His election was the beginning of a term that would be one of the most memorable and one of the most tragic in the history of United States Presidents. However, to fully understand John F. Kennedy’s term, and why it was so influential, we must first look into who he was as a person. The understanding of John F. Kennedy can be found in his childhood, his presidency, his deathRead MoreHistorical Investigation Report On John F. Kennedy1543 Words   |  7 PagesPresident John F. Kennedy sits with his wife, Jackie, in the back of a limo (O’Reilly 257). Their driver, Bill Greer, takes them through the streets of Dallas, as people crowd the sidewalks to catch a glimpse of their beloved president. President Kennedy waves as people cheer and applaud him. Then a shot rings out, followed rapidly by two more shots. The people of Dallas are horrified as they watch President Kennedy’s head jol t back, blood spattering all over the frantic Jackie Kennedy. The limoRead MoreThe Legacy Of John F. Kennedy s Inaugural Address1030 Words   |  5 PagesJohn F. Kennedy was seen as one of the most charming, prominent, and youngest American presidents of our time. He brought ideas and plans to make America a better place when he stepped into office. His run as president was so unique because he had set out plans for office, but he was assassinated before he could go through with some of them. Vice president Lyndon B. Johnson stepped up to the challenge to continue Kennedy’s plans (John F. Kennedy). John F. Kennedy’s domestic policies in the Civil

Origin of Science and the Crusade Free Essays

But when we look at the history of the world Egyptian, Greeks, Roman, Persian, Mongolia, Saracen, British, Dutch, Portuguese, Chinese, Indian and any others had been the super power in different periods of the history. Yet when we talk anybody about a scientific Inventions and discoveries or major leap In the scientific development most tent to point their fingers towards the Europe if It Is before 18th century and towards the USA if it is after 1 9th century. This sort of behavior is deep down in our minds. We will write a custom essay sample on Origin of Science and the Crusade or any similar topic only for you Order Now But is this correct? If so, why the non-European nations were super power? For this I think we have to take a Journey in the history of Science from the early Egyptians. In this short article I would like to take an excursion bout the origins of science, where there the history had been littered with many manipulation and misconception. According to many in the world the science was begun by Greeks and was developed by the post renaissance Europe. As the same time all the great cultures like Persian, Egyptian, Chinese and Indian had no clue regarding the science. But when we look at the history of these civilizations we can understand how developed they were in the history. Egyptians were one of the early races before Greeks who were developed in the Science. They were well versed In anatomy (for art), astronomy and astrology, which ere inseparably linked in ancient Egypt, biology and veterinary medicine, chemistry, geography, geology, history, law, geometry, medicine, mineralogy, pedagogy(education), philosophy, physics, sociology and theology [1]. Irrigation scheme of Nile, tall standing pyramids and the mummies are some example of scientific feat of the Egyptians. Geometry was applied in the Egypt for tax purposes before the so called Euclid of Greece wrote the book of The Elements. Here comes another manipulation of History again in the form of Euclid. Many text books refer Euclid was a white male eventually from Greece and ivied in Alexandria around three century B. C. But no such person was alive on this mother earth. The author of this book is a black woman from Alexandria who lived around fifth century C. E. [2] From these arguments we can assure that the Greek were not the first one to begin the Science. Now let’s consider the development of Science. If we consider the manipulated version of the science history, we get a wide blank span of time from the Greek civilization to the renaissance Europe. Where were the text and the sources of these scientific theorems and formulae? Were they 2 Origin of Science and the crusades I Mohamed Gammy Shifter_209110164 buried in the Mount Olympus? No. They were translated taken into custody by another civilization which have contributed to the many of the scientific development and not credited to it. Yes it was taken into the custody by Islamic Civilization. They hold these texts of Greek until the crusades [2]. The west claims that the Muslim merely translated the works of Greek and preserved it. They never did develop the ideas in the text. This argument is absurd. The Muslims practically ruled from the shore Atlantic Ocean to the boarders of China. And they Just preserved these texts which cost a fortune with the papyrus technology. Many books from Baghdad Library were destroyed by the invasion of Mongols over Jeremiah on 13th century C. E. But the contributions of All Bin Sins (Vicuà ±a) – whose â€Å"The Book of Healing† was text book for medicine in many medieval universities[3], Legalize Bin al Haitian, Jabber bin Hays, AAA Affair, Muhammad bin Carrying al Razz, Bin al-Naifs were inevitable in the scientific history. All bin Shall Arabian al-Tabor was an Islamic scholar, physician and psychologist of Zoroastrian descent, who produced one of the first encyclopedias of medicine. Even the number system we used today was introduced systems Let’s have brief a look on the other civilizations which contributed to the science. Like the crest on the peacocks head, like the gem in the cobra’s hood, so stands mathematics Oat the head of all the sciences. Vided literature of Indian Culture is replete with concepts of zero, the techniques of algebra and algorithm, square root and cube root. Arguably, the origins of Calculus lie in India 300 years before Leibniz and Newton. Algebraic theories was developed by Rapacity who lived in 5th century C. E. ND another mathematician Backbencher’s was the first to was the first to conceive of differential calculus in 12th century. Most of us are familiar with Roman numerals. Think you are sitting in a class doing Calculus using Roman numerals. You are going to write 1788 in Roman numerals it will be ANTICLIMACTIC. You even can’t think of doing calculus by using this number system. From this we can conclude that calculus was not developed or used in early Europe. Ancient Indian’s development in chemistry was also in a higher level and used in a variety of practical activities. In any early civilization, metallurgy has remained an activity central to all civilizations from the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, to all other civilizations that followed Indian achieved the higher level of metallurgy. By the side of Stub Minor in New Delhi, there is an iron pillar erected during Array Guppy period around 500 AD. This pillar is 7. 32 meters tall, and has a circumference of 40 CM in the bottom and 30 CM at the top. It has been standing in the open for last 1500 years, withstanding the wind, heat and weather, but still has not rusted, except minor natural erosion. This kind of rust proof iron (steel) was discovered very few decades fore by mixing carbon with iron [4]. 3 In addition, the Chinese Dynasty in the Far East was producing gunpowder, paper and establishing printing presses. Moreover, the Calendar system was introduced by Amman civilization that is very famous for predicting apocalypse of the earth. From the above arguments, one can conclude that science was not only originated from Greece and it originated universally. Then how did the story â€Å"Science was originated in Greece† came into play? Moreover, where was it originated? These questions can be answered in two simple words â€Å"Church† and â€Å"Power†. From the time hen the state and the church merge, Church initiated the program of distorting history to promote its power. This technology of falsehood was now applied to â€Å"manage† common perceptions[5]. During the crusades, church captured many text and tent to use them. But theological aspects would not allow them to use a Muslim knowledge. Therefore, they manipulated their people by saying that the knowledge Arab had was belonged to Greeks. Arabs Just preserved it. This story enabled the universities in Europe to use translated Arabic books without contradicting their theology. But on the Arabs side, it was a different story. They built Batty al Hickman (House of Wisdom) in Baghdad; they gathered knowledge from all over the world, including India, Persia and China. They certainly did not restrict themselves to Greek Arabs only had sources to Greeks. So all the knowledge which was acquired from Batty al Hickman in Baghdad became the Greeks, So did all the scientific inventions and discoveries. This theory is being promoted by many scholars of the present too. Here is an example from Lost in the Cosmos by Walker Percy â€Å". .As Whitehead pointed out, it is no coincidence that science sprang, not from Ionian metaphysics, not from the Brahmins-Buddhist-Taoist East, not from the Exceptionally astrological South, but from the heart of the Christian West, that although Galileo fell out with the Church, he would hardly have taken so much trouble studying Jupiter and dropping objects from towers if the reality and value and order of things had not first been conferred by belief in the Incarnation. † [6]. So anyone from any country has the right to say that their ancestors were also one of the pioneers of the science. It is time stand up against the â€Å"West only theory’. The Europeans not only colonized our countries but also our education system. They left our countries long ago. Now it is time to decolonize our education system. And the way we think. 4 References [1]Dunn. Ancient Egyptian Science retrieved from http://www. Torturers. Net/ featureless/sciences . HTML [2] Raja, C. K. Euclid and Jesus. Multiversity. [3] http://www. Evangelicalism. Org/ [4] Science, Medicine, Technology in Ancient India retrieved from http:// www. Crystalline. Com/indecencies. HTML [5] Raja, C. K. Is science western in origin?. Multiversity. [6] Percy, W. Lost in the Cosmos retrieved from http://www. Columbia. Deed/cue/Augustine/a/science_origin. HTML 5 How to cite Origin of Science and the Crusade, Papers

The Salem Witch Trials

Introduction The Salem witch trials can be described as diverse and distinct hearings that were held before different county courts. These trials were mostly initiated to prosecute individuals who had been accused of witchcraft. It should be known that these trials were mostly conducted between 1692 and 1693 in Massachusetts (Godbeer 12).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Salem Witch Trials specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As far as these trials and persecutions are concerned, it is estimated that approximately 200 individuals were accused of witchcraft (through practice). In this case, witchcraft was widely referred to as the devils magic which ended up with 20 executions (Godbeer 24). As time went by, the colony admitted that those trials were unwarranted thereby calling for the victims to be compensated. As much as these trials can be referred to as the Salem trials, initial hearings were conducted in a numb er of towns in 1692. This was mostly in the Salem village which is the present day Danvers. Despite all this trials, the best known ones were done in the court of Terminer and Oyer. This means that as much as other people were accused, they were not formally pursued to stand trial. Ipswich and Boston experienced some trials but the outcome was three convictions. These convictions came out of more than 31 trials that had been initiated (Godbeer 32). Many people were convicted as far as these trials are concerned whereby they were accused of capital felony of witchcraft. There are cases where punishments differed but the most notable ones are where people ended up being convicted by hanging. Others were crushed to hanging by being stoned which was an attempt to force them to give out information. Despite all these trials, it should also be known that there are other five people who died in prison before being taken to court (Weisman 35). There is a case where one man refused to enter into trail and he paid the price by being stoned to death which was an attempt to force him into plea. All in all, these cases can be described as mass hysteria which revolved around diverse and similar trials that were going on. This episode has been used on different scenarios to explain the dangers of isolationism. In this case, it is as far as political rhetoric’s are concerned which has extended the idea of religious extremism. As far as popular literature is concerned, we have had cases of false accusations every now and then. There should be no lapses in the due process and this is an aspect that has been reinforced by these episodes. Discussion The Salem witch trials can be described in a broad way as intrusion of individual liberties by the government which can not be entertained in the current world and society. Before these trials, it should be known that the supernatural world was part of people’s daily lives. This is mostly based on a strong belief that di fferent people had about the presence of Satan (Weisman 39).Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In this case, they believed that Satan was active and present on earth thereby having an influence on their daily lives. The concept of the presence of Satan emerged in the fifteen century and later on spread to other parts of America. As much as there was a different perception to witchcraft, it was only used by peasants. In this case, they relied upon it for agriculture and farming by using particular charms that they considered effective and efficient. This form of witchcraft was mainly referred to as white magic but it later on transformed to dark magic as time went by. This therefore implies that dark magic was characterized and associated with evil spirits and demons. As time went by, there were a lot of superstitions that were believed to be related to the devil. This is the period that s aw a lot of witchcraft persecutions taking place. It should be known that this was mostly between 1560 and 1670 where people’s perception about witchcraft started changing significantly. There was a claim by different people that they could prove the existence of evil spirits and demons which tried to reinforce a strong believe in superstition. This was mostly by Joseph Glanvill in 1668, whereby he tried to explain the aspect of bodily resurrection (Weisman 51). In fact, this was the period when we had a lot of issues about supernatural spirits. There was an argument that men should be able to believe in the existence of evil spirits because if they denied such a reality, then they were questioning the reality of the almighty God. In fact, ingenious men were expected to admit the existence of apparitions and witches. All this aspects implied that the supernatural world can not be denied which relates well with the Salem witch trials. Such works therefore tried to reinforce th e fact that demons were indeed alive. As time went by, human beings were meant to believe that demons were part of them on earth based on different happenings and events. The people of Salem believed that all their predicaments were as a result of the devil and evil spirits. In fact, they could not explain their misfortunes like infant deaths and failure of crops. In other cases, there was friction among the congregation where the supernatural world was blamed. There was an unusual outbreak of witchcraft issues and accusations and this ended up reinforcing the need for trials. As much as there could have been other factors, people’s mindset had been tilted to believe that all their predicaments were as a result of witchcraft. All this can be considered as contributing factors in relation to different aspects from a historical context. There were earlier executions in England where it is estimated that 12 people were killed (Aronson 78). 24 other people were later on executed at Salem. It should be known that there is a political context to the Salem witch trials because of the tension that had arisen between colonialists. As much as there was need to sort out governor issues, it was necessary to come up with a legitimate court system that could conduct trials.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Salem Witch Trials specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This is what led to the formation of a special court of Oyer and Terminer that could handle people who had been thronging the courts for justice (Aronson 65). From a local context point of view, Salem village was synonymous with disputes between its village and town populations. In fact, the population was mostly regarded to be quarrelsome by its neighbors. Because of constant bickering among villagers, there were bound to be numerous conflicts in the Salem. Before 1692, there had been rumors of witchcraft in other towns and villages that m ostly neighbored Salem (Aronson 39). The development of casting spells began after many children started experiencing strange fits. This was mostly referred to as the disease of astonishment which was quickly associated with witchcraft by the population as time went by. The children had unique symptoms that had never been seen before which again fuelled the speculation of witchcraft among the population. For instance, flapping of arms had never been witnessed and some of the children went to the extent of harming others. It should therefore be known that these are issues that fuelled the craze against witchcraft in 1692. The most notable trials can be explained from the afflictions of different girls that occurred in early 1692 (Aronson 112).This account ends with trials that were conducted in May 1693. Some of the trials can be traced from initial witch hunts that had started earlier on which can be looked at from a wider context. There has been information about restitution as far as these trials are concerned which needs proper evaluation. Conclusion All this accounts can be traced from two girls (Betty and Abigail) who exhibited strange symptoms that could not be proved by a medical doctor. For instance, they complained of being pricked and pinched by people whom they did not see and this behavior later on spread to other young women. These events led to the first trial of three people which implores that a family feud might have been behind all these trials. Salem can be described as the home of a vicious rivalry that led to the famous witch trials because everybody was involved in one way or the other. This can be traced from heated debates that could even lead to fighting among different people. Most of these women who were accused had the descriptions of usual suspects who could fit as witchcrafts. Nobody stood for the women which culminated to them being brought before a local magistrate. Many other trials followed these ones as instances of witchcraf t continued to be reported in Salem and its environs. As much as the last notable trials were conducted in 1693, public response to most of these events has continued as time goes by (Hill 63). Most of these issues have revolved around establishing the innocence of the accused individuals because they are supposed to be compensated.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The descendants of people who were unfairly accused have been trying to honor their memories which are good developments. There have been revelations that the devil can give people the powers to harm others in return for loyalty which can be described as an aspect that has some relevance in today’s society. A seed of paranoia had been planted in Salem which explains the sequence of events that followed as far as witchcraft persecutions are concerned. The story of Salem witchcraft trials has captured the attention of different stakeholders like artists and writers despite the fact that these events happened centuries of years ago. In this case, different aspects have taken liberties from distinct interpretations that have been explored (Hill 94). The events that happened before have helped to reinforce the fact that there is a boundary between post-medieval and medieval aspects that relate to different cultural constructions. It should occur that the cause of different symptom s that were encountered at that given time will continue being a subject of interest. This is because explanations of those symptoms have been explored by different researchers to explain diverse occurrences that we are witnessing today. The world has seen some attacks on people because they are considered to poses supernatural powers which reinforces the fact that such issues will continue being witnessed every now and then. Works Cited Aronson, Marc. Witch-Hunt: Mysteries of the Salem Witch Trials. New York: Atheneum, 2003. Godbeer, Richard. The Devil’s Dominion: Magic and Religion in Early New England. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Print. Hill, Frances. A Delusion of Satan: The Full Story of the Salem Witch Trials. New York: Doubleday, 1995. Print. Weisman, Richard. Witchcraft, Magic and Religion in 17th Century Massachusetts. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984. Print. 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Roller Coasters and Their Theory Essays

Roller Coasters and Their Theory Essays Roller Coasters and Their Theory Paper Roller Coasters and Their Theory Paper 2010 NAME: CAROLENA SEEREERAM DINESH TEELUCKSINGH DEVIANN SINGH VINCENT BAHADUR KERLON MOORE INSTRUCTOR: MR. RISHI RAMPERSAD COURSE: ENGINEERING SCIENCE COURSE: ENGINEERING SCIENCE CLASS: COMPUTER ENGINEERING (YEAR 1) INSTRUCTOR: RISHI RAMPERSAD GROUP MEMBERS: CAROLENA SEEREERAM DINESH TEELUCKSINGH DEVIANN SINGH VINCENT BAHADUR KERLON MOORE ABSTRACT A roller coaster is an amusement park ride where passengers sit in a series of wheeled cars that are linked together. The cars move along a pair of rails supported by a wood or steel structure. In operation, the cars are carried up a steep incline by a linked chain. When the cars reach the top of the incline, they roll free of the chain and are propelled downward due to gravity through a series of drops, rises, and turns. Finally the cars are braked to a stop at the starting point, where the passengers get out and new passengers get on. Roller coasters are considered by many to be the most exciting ride in any amusement park. TABLE OF CONTENTS Task Pages Abstract 3 Introduction 5 Objectives Methodology6 Background Information Design of a Roller Coaster 7-13 * Working of a Roller Coaster 14-15 * Energy Transformations 16 Methodology 17 Main Body 18 * Brief History of Roller a Coaster * Types of Roller Coasters Reference and Appendix 19 INTRODUCTION This project is based on the operations and the energy conversions of a roller coaster and it is designed to make an understanding of how a roller coaster works. A roller coaster ride is a thrilling experience which involves a we alth of physics. Part of the physics of a roller coaster is the physics of work and energy. The ride often begins as a chain and motor, or other mechanical device which exerts a force on the train of cars to lift the train to the top of track. Once the cars are lifted to the top of the track, gravity takes over and the remainder of the ride is an experience in energy transformation. OBJECTIVES The objectives of this project include: 1) Describing the equipment design and operation of Roller Coasters. 2) Investigating the sources of energy and stating whether the energy is harnessed naturally or if it is renewable. 3) Energy conversion and the losses incurred during the conversion process. ) Identifying the environmental impacts of using such energy. Methodology Different data collection methods were used to collect information of the roller coaster. The most used was the use of the internet. A lot of the information was gathered from different sites and was restructured in one’s own words. Also watching videos from the internet (YouTube) was widely used in gathering of the information. Another method was through reading of text books and encyclopedia based on the roller coaster and once again the information was put together in one’s own words. The following steps were taken when researching the topic. First planning was done on how to do the research and who had to do what in the research. Different members had to do different types of research. Some did through the internet and some researched by reading of text books and encyclopedia. The data was then analyze, then the study of the design of the structure of the roller coaster. Implementation of the information and restructure of the information was then carried out by all members of the group. BACKGROUND INFORMATION Design of a Roller Coaster The design of a roller coaster ride is the first and most important part of the manufacturing process. Because each roller coaster is unique, every detail must be designed literally from the ground up. In order to design a roller coaster, designers must consider what kind of riders will use the coaster. If the coaster is designed for small children, the hills and curves will be gentle, and the cars speed will be relatively slow. Families usually want a somewhat faster ride with plenty of turns and moderate forces. Ultimate thrill seekers want extreme heights and speeds. Next, the designers must consider the space available for the coaster, because roller coasters not only take a lot of ground space, but also a lot of air space. Designers look at the general terrain, other surrounding rides, power lines, access roads, lakes, trees, and other obstacles. Some amusement parks have added so many rides that a new roller coaster has to be designed to thread its way through existing rides and walkways. The next objective for the designers is to achieve a unique feel for the coaster. Designers can draw on a number of techniques to provide a memorable ride. The initial incline can be made steeper or the speed of the lift chain can be made slower to heighten the apprehension of the passengers. Once up the incline, the first drop is usually designed to be the steepest, and therefore the fastest and scariest. Other drops can be designed with a brief flattened section in the middle, and are called double dips. Drops with very abrupt transitions to a flat or upturned section are called slammers because they slam the passengers down into their seats. Letting the cars run close to the ground, in what is called a gully coaster, gives the illusion of increased speed. The advent of steel construction for coasters has allowed a number of variations on the basic roller coaster ride. In some modern coasters, the passengers sit suspended below the tracks rather than riding on top of them. In others, the passengers ride standing up rather than sitting down. Most of the actual design and layout of a roller coaster is done on a computer. The height of the first incline must be calculated to give the cars enough energy to propel them all the way through the ride and back to the station. The horizontal and vertical forces that the loaded cars exert on the track must be calculated at every point to ensure that the support structure is adequate. Because each coaster usually incorporates one or more new and untried features, a working prototype of the new features may be built for testing and evaluation. The prototype is erected at the manufacturers facility, and weighted test cars outfitted with instrumentation are propelled through the test section at the desired speed. Based on these tests, the designers may alter their original design before building the final product. When the calculations, design, and testing are complete, a computer-aided drafting (CAD) program is used to prepare detailed drawings for each of the thousands of parts that will be used to build the new coaster. The Manufacturing Process of a Roller Coaster The actual physical construction of a roller coaster may take place in a factory or on the amusement park site depending on the type and size of the coaster. Most steel coasters are built in sections in a factory, then trucked to the site and erected. Most wooden coasters are built piece-by-piece on the site. Here is the typical sequence of operations for manufacturing both modern steel coasters and classic wooden coasters: Preparing the Site: 1) Before the roller coaster can be installed, the area where it is to be located needs to be cleared and prepared. 2)   If there are existing structures, vegetation, or utilities that need to be moved or demolished, this work is done first. If any of the surrounding terrain needs to be filled or excavated, that work is also done at this time. 3) Holes for the support structure foundations are surveyed and drilled or dug. Sturdy wooden forms are then constructed to hold the concrete for each foundation point. In some areas where the soil is very sandy, large wooden piles may be driven into the ground as foundations rather than using poured concrete. If concrete is used, it is brought to the site in mixer trucks and pumped into place by a concrete pump with a long, articulating arm that can reach each foundation form. Connector plates are imbedded into the concrete on top of each foundation to allow attachment of the supports. Erecting the Main Support Structure: 4) When the foundation is in place, work begins on the main support structure. All the parts for steel coasters are made in a factory and shipped to the job site in sections on trucks. In the factory, the pieces for each support are cut and welded into the required shape using fixtures to hold them in the proper orientation to each other. If a complex three-dimensional bend is required, this may be done in a hydraulic tube bender that is controlled by information from the computer. On wooden coasters, the material for the supports is usually shipped to the site as unfinished lumber and the individual pieces are cut and assembled on site. In either case, the lower portions of the main supports are lifted by a crane and are attached to the connector plates protruding from the foundation points. ) Once the lower supports are in place, they may be temporarily braced while the upper sections are lifted into place and connected. This work continues until the main support structure is complete. Installing the Track: 6) With the main support structure in place, the track is installed. On steel coasters, sections of track are fabricated in the factory with the stanchions an d tubular tracks welded to the track supports. After the sections are brought to the site, they are lifted into place, and the track ends are slid together. The sections are then bolted to the main support structure and to each other. On wooden coasters, wood tie beams are installed across the top of the main support structure along the entire length of the ride. Six to eight layers of flat wood boards are installed lengthways on top of the tie beams in two rows to form a laminated base for the rails. The rails themselves are formed from long, flat strips of steel screwed into the wood base. 7) On steel coasters, walkways and handrails are welded in place along the outside of the track to allow maintenance access and emergency evacuation of passengers. On wooden coasters, the portions of the tie beams outside of the track are used as walkways, and handrails are installed. ) The lift chain and anti-rollback mechanisms are installed on the lift hill, and the braking device is installed on the final approach to the station. Fabricating the Cars: 9) The individual cars for the coaster are fabricated in the factory. The sub frame pieces are cut and welded. The bodies are stamped from aluminum or molded in fiberglass, t hen fastened to the sub frame. Seat cushions may be cut from foam, mounted on a base, and covered with upholstery. Running wheels and guide wheels are bolted in place with locking fasteners. Brake fins, anti-rollback dogs, and other safety components are installed. Finishing the Ride: 0) When the main construction is completed, electrical wiring is installed for the lighting, and the entire ride may be painted. The boarding station is constructed, signs are installed, and the landscaping is put in place. Working of a Roller Coaster The roller coasters work on the principle of conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy. The cars attached to the roller coaster do not have self-powered motor. Instead they are pulled by one chained with the other to the first peak of the roller coaster track. On reaching the top of the first peak the kinetic energy with which the cars are pulled becomes the potential energy. With that the cars of the roller coaster system not only slide down but also move up the second peak. This process is repeated in the subsequent peaks and finally the cars are brought to a stop with the application of brake run. A well designed roller coaster will have enough energy to complete the entire course of the track and will come to an end on the application of brake run at the end. Modern roller coasters have launch mechanisms, which starts off the ride with a high amount of acceleration by means of one or series of Linear Induction Motors and Linear synchronous Motors, powered by hydraulic or pneumatic force. Roll back occurs when a launched train does not have enough potential energy to ascend the top of the first peak. Under the roll back the train comes back to the original launching place for re-launch. In the case of continuous circuit roller coasters, when the kinetic energy is not enough for the train to complete the travel after descending from its highest peak point , it moves forward and backward along the track until all the kinetic energy is released. After that it comes to a stop. Energy Transformations in a Roller Coaster A roller coaster ride also illustrates the work and energy relationship. The work done by external forces is capable of changing the total amount of mechanical energy from an initial value to some final value. The amount of work done by the external forces upon the object is equal to the amount of change in the total mechanical energy of the object. The relationship is often stated in the form of the following mathematical equation. KEinitial + PEinitial + Wexternal = KEfinal + PEfinal The left side of the equation includes the total mechanical energy (KEinitial + PEinitial) for the initial state of the object plus the work done on the object by external forces (Wexternal) while the right side of the equation includes the total mechanical energy (KEfinal + PEfinal) for the final state of the object. Once a roller coaster has reached its initial summit and begins its descent through loops, turns and smaller hills, the only forces acting upon the coaster cars are the force of gravity, the normal force and dissipative forces such as air resistance. The force of gravity is an internal force and thus any work done by it does not change the total mechanical energy of the train of cars. The normal force of the track pushing up on the cars is an external force. However, it is at all times directed perpendicular to the motion of the cars and thus is incapable of doing any work upon the train of cars. Finally, the air resistance force is capable of doing work upon the cars and thus draining a small amount of energy from the total mechanical energy which the cars possess. However, due to the complexity of this force and its small contribution to the large quantity of energy possessed by the cars, it is often neglected. By neglecting the influence of air resistance, it can be said that the total mechanical energy of the train of cars is conserved during the ride. That is to say, the total amount of mechanical energy (kinetic plus potential) possessed by the cars is the same throughout the ride. Energy is neither gained nor lost, only transformed from kinetic energy to potential energy and vice versa. Energy Transformations in a Roller Coaster Methodology Different data collection methods were used to collect information of the roller coaster. The most used was the use of the internet. A lot of the information was gathered from different sites and was restructured in one’s own words. Also watching videos from the internet (YouTube) was widely used in gathering of the information. Another method was through reading of text books and encyclopedia based on the roller coaster and once again the information was put together in one’s own words. The following steps were taken when researching the topic. First planning was done on how to do the research and who had to do what in the research. Different members had to do different types of research. Some did through the internet and some researched by reading of text books and encyclopedia. The data was then analyze, then the study of the design of the structure of the roller coaster. Implementation of the information and restructure of the information was then carried out by all members of the group. Main Body Brief History of a Roller Coaster: A roller coaster train going downhill represents merely a complex case as a body is descending an inclined plane. Newtons first two laws relate force and acceleration, which are key concepts in roller coaster physics. At amusement parks, Newtons laws can be applied to every ride. These rides range from The Swings to The Hammer. Newton was also one of the developers of calculus which is essential to analyzing falling bodies constrained on more complex paths than inclined planes. A roller coaster ride is in a gravitational field except with the Principle of Equivalence. An important thing to consider is that the carts on a conventional modern day roller coaster are not self-powered. The movement is generated exclusively by gravitational, inertial and centripetal forces. Although the tracks are getting more and more complex and the speed is ever increasing, the basic principles of physics at work are simple and can be easily understood. Still, the actual task of designing a roller coaster itself is by no means simple, which is reflected by the many obstacles that need to be overcome before a coaster becomes operational. Given this contrasting perspective, this paper is going to take a look at these underlying physics principles as well as some engineering methods that are involved. Energy is essentially applied to the carts only as they are pulled up the first hill. This hill is often called the lift hill. Once the coaster reaches the top, the forces applied to it for the remainder of the ride are mainly gravitational and inertial. Therefore, in essence, the fundamental principle behind the coaster’s operation is the ‘conservation of energy,’ which simply states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. The total energy which is consisted of ‘potential’ and ‘kinetic’ parts, is therefore constant. As the coaster moves up the lift hill, the total energy exerted on the carts is stored in the system as potential energy. This happens since as the height increases, there is a greater chance for the gravity to act on the cart to pull it down. However, it is not desirable to have the carts fall vertically to the ground, and so a good way to think about what is happening here is that the tracks are designed to manipulate this fall. The second physical principle relevant here is Newton’s first law: This states that an object stays in motion (or conversely stays still) if no external forces are applied. The tendency of objects to do this is referred to as ‘inertia’. Based on this principle, as the cart reaches the second hill (after the lift hill), it continues to rise converting kinetic energy to potential energy. However, some of the energy will be lost due to friction which exists between the tracks and the cart wheels as well as that created by carts moving through the air. Therefore, a few extra hills (which are shorter than the lift hill) are put along the path to ‘recharge’ the cart giving it more potential energy to convert back to kinetic energy. The racks are designed in such a way that at the end of the ride, all potential energy is converted to kinetic energy so there is little need for brakes and the carts essentially stop on their own. Components The worlds tallest and fastest roller coaster, the Kingda Ka at Six Flags Great Adventure in New Jersey. At first glance, a roller coaster is something like a passenger train. It consists of a series of connected cars that move on tracks. But unlike a passenger train, a roller coaster has no engine  or power source of its own. For most of the ride, the train is moved by  gravity  and momentum. To build up this momentum, you need to get the train to the top of the first hill (the lift hill) or give it a powerful launch. Chain Lift The traditional lifting mechanism is a long length of chain (or chains) running up the hill under the track. The chain is fastened in a loop, which is wound around a gear at the top of the hill and another one at the bottom of the hill. The gear at the bottom of the hill is turned by a simple  motor. This turns the chain loop so that it continually moves up the hill like a long conveyer belt. The coaster cars grip onto the chain with several  chain dogs, sturdy hinged hooks. When the train rolls to the bottom of the hill, the dogs catches onto the chain links. Once the chain dog is hooked, the chain simply pulls the train to the top of the hill. At the summit, the chain dog is released and the train starts its descent down the hill. Catapult-launch In some newer coaster designs, a catapult launch sets the train in motion. There are several sorts of catapult launches, but they all basically do the same thing. Instead of dragging the train up a hill to build up potential energy, these systems start the train off by building up a good amount of kinetic energy in a short amount of time. One popular catapult system is the linear-induction motor. A linear-induction motor uses  electromagnets  to build two magnetic fields one on the track and one on the bottom of the train that are attracted to each other. The motor moves the magnetic field on the track, pulling the train along behind it at a high rate of speed. The main advantages of this system are its speed, efficiency, durability, precision and controllability. Another popular system uses dozens of rotating wheels to launch the train up the lift hill. The wheels are arranged in two adjacent rows along the track. The wheels grip the bottom (or top) of the train between them, pushing the train forward. The Breaks Like any train, a roller coaster needs a  brake  system so it can stop precisely at the end of the ride or in an emergency. In roller coasters, the brakes arent built into the train itself; theyre built into the track. This system is very simple. A series of clamps is positioned at the end of the track and at a few other braking points. A central computer operates a  hydraulic system  that closes these clamps when the train needs to stop. The clamps close in on vertical metal fins running under the train, and this friction gradually slows the train down. Types of Roller Coasters: There are many different designs for Roller Coasters but the following are the most popular: * Wooden Roller Coaster * Steel Roller Coaster Wooden Roller Coaster – Wooden coasters use massive wooden trestle-style structures to support the track above the ground. Steel plates are used to reinforce critical joints. Steel Roller Coaster – These may use thin, trestle-style structures to support the track, or they may use thick tubular supports. The track is usually formed in sections from a pair of welded round steel tubes held in position by steel stanchions attached to rectangular box girder or thick round tubular track supports. All exposed steel surfaces are painted. Reference and Appendix http://cec. chebucto. org/Co-Phys. html http://library. thinkquest. org/2745/data/ke. htm http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Centripetal_force teachersdomain. org/resource/hew06. sci. phys. maf. rollercoaster thehumorwriter. com/Kids_Corner_Original_Storie/Roller_Coasters/roller_coasters www. google. tt buzzle. com/articles/physics-of-roller-coasters. html